Impedance Matching Research Articles

Acoustically Enhanced Triboelectric Stethoscope for Ultrasensitive Cardiac Sounds Sensing and Disease Diagnosis.

Electronic stethoscope used to detect cardiac sounds that contains essential clinical information is a primary tool for diagnosis of various cardiac disorders. However, the linear electro-mechanical constitutive relation makes conventional piezoelectric sensors rather ineffective to detect low-intensity, low-frequency heart acoustic signal without the assistance of complex filtering and amplification circuits. Herein, we find that triboelectric sensor features superior advantages over piezoelectric one for micro-quantity sensing originated from the fast saturated constitutive characteristic. As a result, the triboelectric sensor shows ultrahigh sensitivity (1215mV/Pa) than the piezoelectric counterpart (21mV/Pa) in the sound pressure range of 50 - 80dB under the same testing condition. By designing a trumpet-shaped auscultatory cavity with a power function cross-section to achieve acoustic energy converging and impedance matching, triboelectric stethoscope delivers 36dB signal-to-noise ratio for human test (2.3 times of that for piezoelectric one). Further combining with machine learning, five cardiac states can be diagnosed at 97% accuracy. In general, the triboelectric sensor is distinctly unique in basic mechanism, provides a novel design concept for sensing micromechanical quantities, and presents significant potential for application in cardiac sounds sensing and disease diagnosis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

High-Frequency and High-Current Transmission Techniques for Multiple Earth Electrical Characteristic Measurement Systems Based on Adaptive Impedance Matching through Phase Comparison

High-Frequency and High-Current Transmission Techniques for Multiple Earth Electrical Characteristic Measurement Systems Based on Adaptive Impedance Matching through Phase Comparison

An ultra-wideband power amplifier designed through a bandwidth expansion strategy

Abstract A bandwidth expansion strategy for ultra-wideband power amplifiers (PAs) is presented in this letter by adopting a parallel impedance matching architecture. This design strategy can effectively reduce the impedance conversion ratio between the load and the target impedance of the PA, thereby providing a feasible solution for broadband impedance matching. Subsequently, a commercially available 10 W gallium nitride device and a two-stage Wilkinson power divider network are combined to achieve the verification of the proposed theory. The results of the measurement show that within the target frequency band of 0.9–3.9 GHz, 58.5–71.2% of the drain efficiency and 9.1–12 dB of gain can be achieved with a saturated output power of 39.1–42 dBm.

Triple band diamond-shaped polarization insensitive plasmonic nano emitter for thermal camouflage and radiative cooling

This study proposes the design of a novel Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) nano-infrared emitter that uses a unique diamond-shaped grating to achieve selective infrared absorption. Diamond-shaped nano emitter (DNE) structure exhibits four narrow resonant peaks within key absorption windows such as short-wave infrared (SWIR) mid-wave infrared (MWIR), alongside with a wide absorption band in the Non-Transmissive Infrared Range (NTIR) for thermal camouflage applications compatible with radiative cooling. Moreover, the proposed DNE is polarization insensitive as it has an in-plane symmetric design. Using the 3D Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) simulations, we demonstrate the nanoantenna’s superior performance characterized by its high absorption rates and tuned effective impedance matching. As of our knowledge, the findings suggest that this is the first time that a MIM structure achieved multiple narrow resonance peaks, located in SWIR and MWIR simultaneously, with a wide absorption range in NTIR. Represented DNE stands as a significant innovation in the field of stealth technology, providing a tunable, high-efficiency solution for managing and controlling thermal emissions across diverse applications.

Towards efficient control synthesis for nonlinear wave energy conversion systems: impedance-matching meets the spectral-domain

AbstractExisting studies within the literature that focus on designing parametric energy-maximizing controllers for Wave Energy Converter (WEC) systems predominantly rely on the impedance-matching (IM) principle, originally developed for linear time-invariant systems. Alternatively, iterative optimization routines are commonly employed for nonlinear WECs. However, these approaches often face a trade-off between effectiveness in maximizing energy extraction and computational efficiency. To address this limitation, this study proposes a computationally efficient controller tuning method for analogous synthesis in the case of nonlinear WECs. The proposed approach combines a statistical linearization technique known as spectral-domain modeling with the IM principle, to synthesize a Proportional–Integrative (PI) controller for a nonlinear WEC. Furthermore, a comparison is performed with two other synthesis methods: one based on a standard (i.e. linear) frequency-domain representation of the WEC that incorporates the IM principle, and the other employing a gradient-free optimization routine applied to the nonlinear time-domain model of the WEC for PI parameter tuning through exhaustive numerical search. A discussion on the effectiveness of each tuning method in maximizing energy absorption is provided, including an appraisal of their associated computational time requirements. Numerical analyses demonstrate that the proposed method, which integrates spectral-domain modeling and IM, can achieve (almost) optimal PI controller design for a nonlinear WEC. Furthermore, this study addresses the inaccuracies inherent in the frequency-domain approach and significantly reduces the computational time compared to the exhaustive search procedure. The findings of this research represent a significant advancement towards the development of simple, effective, and efficient IM-based techniques for synthesis of controllers in nonlinear WEC systems

Pattern Diversity Based Four-Element Dual-band MIMO Patch Antenna for 5G mmWave Communication Networks

AbstractThis study presents a planar dual-band multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna design for the prospective fifth-generation (5G) frequency bands of 28 and 38 GHz. The antenna element is designed by utilizing a rectangular patch with an offset microstrip feeding technique. A dual-band response is achieved by placing semi-circular slots on each side of the patch element. To tune the frequency response and improve impedance matching, vertical rectangular slits are etched in the rectangular patch and the ground plane, respectively. The results show that the single antenna element offers an impedance bandwidth of 2.52 GHz (26.32–28.84 GHz) and 7.5 GHz (34–41.5 GHz). In addition, a MIMO configuration based on pattern diversity using four antenna elements is designed and fabricated. The designed MIMO configuration achieves an impedance bandwidth of 3 GHz (27–30 GHz) and 5.46 GHz (35.54–41 GHz) at operating bands of 28 and 38 GHz. The peak realized gain for the single element at 28 and 38 GHz is noted to be 7.4 dBi and 7.5 dBi, respectively. Furthermore, the polarization diversity configuration illustrates an isolation of > 15 dB and > 25 dB for the 28 and 38 GHz frequency bands, respectively. Moreover, the MIMO configuration attains appropriate values for the envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) and diversity gain (DG), Total Active Reflection Co-efficient (TARC), Channel Capacity Loss (CCL) and Mean Effective Gain (MEG) for the operating frequency bands. The proposed MIMO system based on results seems to be potential choice for mmwave Ka Band Applications.

Adaptive impedance matching in microwave and terahertz metamaterial absorbers using PIN diodes and GaN HEMTs

Metamaterial absorbers allow electromagnetic waves to be converted into heat energy based on impedance matching. However, passive metamaterial absorbers exhibit fixed absorption characteristics, limiting their flexibility. This work demonstrates tunable microwave and terahertz absorbers by integrating adjustable resistors into the metamaterial units. First, a microwave absorber from 1 to 5 GHz was designed by embedding PIN diodes with voltage-controlled resistance. Calculations, simulations, and measurements verified two separate absorption peaks over 90% when optimized to a resistance of 250 Ω. The absorption frequencies shifted based on the resistor tuning. Building on this, a terahertz absorber was modeled by substituting gallium nitride high electron mobility transistors (GaN HEMTs) as the adjustable resistor component. The GaN HEMTs were controlled by an integrated gate electrode to modify the two-dimensional electron gas density, allowing resistance changes without external voltage terminals. Simulations revealed two absorption peaks exceeding 90% absorption at 0.34 THz and 1.06 THz by adjusting the equivalent resistance from 180 Ω to 380 Ω, and the tunable resistance is verified by DC measurement of single GaN HEMT in the unit. This work demonstrates how integrating adjustable resistors enables dynamic control over the absorption frequencies and bandwidths of metamaterial absorbers. The proposed geometries provide blueprints for tunable microwave and terahertz absorbers.

Tunable polarization-independent and angle-insensitive ultra-broadband terahertz absorber with vanadium dioxide

Abstract In this paper, a tunable ultra-broadband terahertz metamaterial absorber is proposed based on the phase transition material of vanadium dioxide (VO2). The absorber cell consists of a petal-like monolayer vanadium dioxide, a dielectric layer, and a metal layer. The terahertz absorption bandwidth of more than 90% absorptance reaches 4.2 THz, which covers from 1.99 to 6.19 THz, and a relative bandwidth attains to 102.7%. By changing the conductivity of VO2, the absorbance of this structure can be dynamically adjusted from 2.4% to 98.96%. The physical mechanism of the perfect absorption in this paper is investigated by the impedance matching theory and electric field distributions. The results show that the strong coupling effect in the petal-like structure contributes to the broadening of the absorption spectrum, and the absorber is polarization-insensitive and wide-angle incidence-insensitive due to the symmetry of the cell structure. The metamaterial absorber designed in this paper is expected to have a wide range of applications in the fields of terahertz imaging, stealth, sensing and detection.

Mesoporous silica@polypyrrole and its epoxy composites with ultra-broadband electromagnetic wave absorption properties

Composite of powders with exceptional electromagnetic wave absorption (EMA) properties with resins is an important tactic for preparing electromagnetic wave (EMW) stealth composites. However, high expenditure, low yield and the complex synthesis of these powders constrain their utilization in composite materials. Moreover, composite materials need greater thickness to fulfill EMA requirements. This work reported a facilely producible absorber, mesoporous Silica@Polypyrrole (MSU-J@PPy), which exhibits enhanced EMA performance. The polymerization of PPy in the connected three-dimensional pores as well as on the surface of MSU-J led to the creation of conductive network thereby enhancing the conductive loss. MSU-J contributes to the lightweighting and impedance matching and promotes the formation of a non-homogeneous interface. By varying the ratio of PPy to MSU-J, precise control of EMA was realized. When the proportion of PPy to MSU-J by weight is 1.5:1, the reflection loss (RL) of MSU-J@PPy reaches an impressive −46.44 dB at 1.9 mm. The effective absorption bandwidth (EAB) is 6.08 GHz (11.92–18 GHz) at 2.1 mm thickness of the sample. Further, MSU-J@PPy and carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes (cMWCNTs) was composited with epoxy resin (EP) to develop a wave-absorbing composites MSU-J@PPy/cMWCNTs/EP with ultra-broadband absorption properties and outstanding mechanical characteristics. At a thickness of 1.7 mm, the composite can effectively absorb EMW in the entire Ku band, and effective absorption across the 5.4–18 GHz range can be attained through changing the matching thickness. This work offers a novel approach for developing cost-effective, easily synthesized, and high-yield EMW absorbers, as well as their application in absorber composite materials.

Design and operation of a load-tolerant ICRH system in Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak

Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ICRH) has been a dependable tool for sturdy plasma heating with high RF power of several megawatts. However, a sudden increase in the reflected power during ICRH heating experiments is a problem that should be solved for future fusion experimental devices. To solve this issue, a load tolerant matching network has been designed for the ICRH system in EAST. The matching network includes a 3-stub tuner impedance matching system with conjugate-T structure, 30 Ω to 50 Ω transmission line and center grounded antenna strap. By maintaining a low reflection ratio in the network for a wide range of resistance, this matching network can allow sturdy high-power operations without fast impedance matching in EAST. In our matching network, the two arms of a conjugate-T are designed to have a λ/2 length difference which could mitigate current imbalance and antenna poloidal phasing outside of the control problem. The T-point corresponds to the maximum point of the standing wave voltage, which could greatly improve the input impedance of the antenna.

Development of 2400–2450 MHz Frequency Band RF Energy Harvesting System for Low-Power Device Operation

Recently, there has been an increasing fascination for employing radio frequency (RF) energy harvesting techniques to energize various low-power devices by harnessing the ambient RF energy in the surroundings. This work outlines a novel advancement in RF energy harvesting (RFEH) technology, intending to power portable gadgets with minimal operating power demands. A high-gain receiver microstrip patch antenna was designed and tested to capture ambient RF residue, operating at 2450 MHz. Similarly, a two-stage Dickson voltage booster was developed and employed with the RFEH to transform the received RF signals into useful DC voltage signals. Additionally, an LC series circuit was utilized to ensure impedance matching between the antenna and rectifier, facilitating the extraction of maximum power from the developed prototype. The findings indicate that the developed rectifier attained a peak power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 64% when operating at an input power level of 0 dBm. During experimentation, the voltage booster demonstrated its capability to rectify a minimum input AC signal of only 50 mV, yielding a corresponding 180 mV output DC signal. Moreover, the maximum power of 4.60 µW was achieved when subjected to an input AC signal of 1500 mV with a load resistance of 470 kΩ. Finally, the devised RFEH was also tested in an open environment, receiving signals from Wi-Fi modems positioned at varying distances for evaluation.

Integrating Sulfur Doping with a Multi-Heterointerface Fe7S8/NiS@C Composite for Wideband Microwave Absorption.

Heterointerface engineering is presently considered a valuable strategy for enhancing the microwave absorption (MA) properties of materials via compositional modification and structural design. In this study, a sulfur-doped multi-interfacial composite (Fe7S8/NiS@C) coated with NiFe-layered double hydroxides (LDHs) is successfully prepared using a hydrothermal method and post-high-temperature vulcanization. When assembled into twisted surfaces, the NiFe-LDH nanosheets exhibit porous morphologies, improving impedance matching, and microwave scattering. Sulfur doping in composites generates heterointerfaces, numerous sulfur vacancies, and lattice defects, which facilitate the polarization process to enhance MA. Owing to the controllable heterointerface design, the unique porous structure induced multiple heterointerfaces, numerous vacancies, and defects, endowing the Fe7S8/NiS@C composite with an enhanced MA capability. In particular, the minimum reflection loss (RLmin) value reached -58.1dB at 15.8GHz at a thickness of 2.1mm, and a broad effective absorption bandwidth (EAB) value of 7.3GHz is achieved at 2.5mm. Therefore, the Fe7S8/NiS@C composite exhibits remarkable potential as a high-efficiency MA material owing to the synergistic effects of the polarization processes, multiple scatterings, porous structures, and impedance matching.

Electrosensory and metabolic responses of weakly electric fish to changing water conductivity.

Weakly electric Gymnotiform fishes use self-generated electric organ discharges (EODs) to navigate and communicate. The electrosensory range for these processes is a function of EOD amplitude, determined by the fish's electric organ (EO) output and the electrical conductivity of the surrounding water. Anthropogenic activity, such as deforestation, dams, and industrial/agricultural runoff, are known to increase water conductivity in neotropical habitats, likely reducing the electrosensory range of these fish. We investigated whether fish modulate EO output as means of re-expanding electrosensory range after a rapid increase in water conductivity in the pulse-type Brachyhypopomus gauderio and the wave-type Eigenmannia virescens. Furthermore, because EOD production incurs significant metabolic costs, we assessed whether such compensation is associated with an increase in metabolic rate. Following the conductivity increase B. gauderio increased EOD amplitude by 20.2±4.3% over six days but with no associated increase in metabolic rate, whereas the EOD amplitude of E. virescens remained constant, accompanied by an unexpected decrease in metabolic rate. Our results suggest that B. gauderio uses a compensation mechanism that requires no metabolic investment, such as impedance matching, or a physiological tradeoff wherein energy is diverted from other physiological processes to increase EO output. These divergent responses between species could be the result of differences in reproductive life history or evolutionary adaptations to different aquatic habitats. Continued investigation of electrosensory responses to changing water conditions will be essential for understanding the effects of anthropogenic disturbances on gymnotiforms, and potential physiological mechanisms for adapting to a rapidly changing aquatic environment.

Designing a High Gain Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna Working at 3 GHz for RADAR

This study presents the design and analysis of a microstrip patch antenna optimized for radar applications operating at a frequency of 3 GHz. The antenna is designed to meet the requirements of radar systems, offering characteristics such as high gain, low profile, and broad bandwidth. The design process involves simulation using electromagnetic simulation software to achieve the desired antenna performance parameters. Various antenna parameters, including substrate material selection, patch dimensions, feeding techniques, and impedance matching networks, are carefully optimized to enhance antenna performance. The proposed antenna design is expected to exhibit excellent radiation characteristics, making it suitable for radar applications requiring reliable and efficient communication at 3 GHz frequency. This antenna designed for operating at 3 GHz, type Rogers Ultralam1217 (tm) with dielectric constant, ∈r= 2.2 tanδ (0.0009) and thickness of h = 1.6mm. The antennas are simulated using Ansys HFSS software. The performance is evaluated in terms of return loss, gain, and directivity and is deemed to be compatible with simulations.

A competitive strategy toward 1 T/2H MoS2 to balance impedance for optimizing electromagnetic wave absorption

Interface engineering and phase engineering play crucial roles in enhancing the design and development of advanced electromagnetic wave (EMW) absorbers. However, there is a lack of focus on designing phase structures and interfaces from a microscopic perspective to adjust impedance matching and EMW absorption. This study introduced a competitive strategy involving 1 T/2H MoS2. The phase structure and composition of MoS2 were controlled using a microwave hydrothermal method. By creating a diverse phase interface within the material in the form of 1 T/2H, a balance between conduction loss and polarization loss was achieved, leading to improved EMW absorption through enhanced impedance matching. The results indicated that the incorporation of the 1 T phase boosted the electron transfer capability of MoS2, increasing conduction loss. The 1 T/2H phase interface enhanced interface polarization, thereby amplifying polarization loss. At a thickness of 2.8 mm, the absorber demonstrated a minimum reflection loss of −64.9 dB and an effective absorption bandwidth of 4.6 GHz. In far-field conditions, the maximum radar cross-section (RCS) of the 1 T/2H phase MoS2 nanoflowers was −27.5 dBm2. This study elucidates the relationship between 1 T/2H phase MoS2 content and phase interfaces with impedance matching, offering a novel approach for developing high-performance MoS2-based EMW absorbing materials.

Biomimetic artificial nacre-like microfiber of Co/C modified cellulose nanofiber/Ti3C2Tx MXene with efficient microwave absorption

Although considerable efforts have been made in the fabrication of MXene-based composites for microwave absorption (MA), there is a great challenge to assemble MXene into regularly arranged microfibers prepared by wet-spinning technique for application in the field of MA due to insufficient interlayer interactions between Ti3C2Tx flakes. Heterogeneous interface design by optimizing material components to construct ingenious microstructure is crucial for efficient microwave absorbers. Herein, artificial nacre-like supramolecular microfibers of Co/C modified cellulose nanofiber/Ti3C2Tx MXene (Co/C/CNF/Ti3C2Tx) with plenty of heterogeneous interfaces were prepared by a simple wet-spinning technology through a self-assembly process induced by hydrogen bonding interactions between CNF and Ti3C2Tx. The artificial nacre-like microfibers with layered structure possess abundant heterogeneous interfaces, which facilitate multiple reflections/scattering of electromagnetic waves (EMW) between these interfaces, and at the same time promote interfacial and dipole polarization. The introduction of magnetic Co/C nanoparticles not only offer additional magnetic loss ability and improved impedance matching, but also enhance conductivity loss and polarization loss. Benefiting from these advantages, Co/C/CNF/Ti3C2Tx (1:1:1) fiber exhibits superior MA performance with a minimum reflection loss (RLmin) of up to −62.32 dB (>99.9999 % energy absorption) and a broad effective absorption bandwidth (EAB) of 5.86 GHz. The work provides a promising method for the preparation of biomimetic artificial nacre-like MXene-based microfibers with efficient MA performance, which is expected to be applied in the field of flexible wearable electromagnetic protection.

A wideband inductorless LNA exploiting three-stage feedback and thermal noise canceling

In inductorless wideband low-noise amplifier (LNA) design, input-matching is traded off with noise figure (NF). The common-source noise-canceling (CSNC) structure and the gyrator alleviate this trade-off, but the corresponding study is insufficient. This work combines the CSNC and gyrator and introduces a three-stage feedback loop to achieve high feedback gain while minimizing the added input capacitance. Hence, the trade-off between NF and input impedance matching is significantly released. Consequently, the lowest NF among inductorless LNAs was achieved, while an operation bandwidth of more than 3 GHz was obtained. Post-layout simulation results in 40 nm CMOS technology show that the circuit achieves an NF of 1.35 dB–1.7 dB while maintaining a wide operation bandwidth of 100 MHz to 3.46 GHz. As far as the author knows, this is the lowest NF inductorless LNAs have achieved. Furthermore, S21 of 10.9 dB and IIP3 (input third-order intercept point) of −5.6 dB m are obtained, and the circuit consumes 14.9 mW at a 1.2 V voltage supply. Being self-biased, the circuit core consumes only 0.0032 mm2 die area.

Broadband terahertz absorber based on patterned slotted vanadium dioxide

This study aims to explore broadband terahertz absorbers based on metamaterials by introducing a design featuring patterned slotted vanadium dioxide. This absorber structure includes a vanadium dioxide resonator layer, an intermediate Topas dielectric layer, and an underlying metal reflector layer. To enhance the absorption bandwidth, the vanadium dioxide resonant layer is strategically patterned to optimize impedance matching. Simulation outcomes reveal that, under positive incidence, the absorption rate exceeds 90 % within the frequency range of 1.5–4.2 THz. The absorber demonstrates a substantial absorption bandwidth of 2.7 THz, centered at 2.85 THz, corresponding to a relative bandwidth of 94.7 %. Additionally, through modulation of the conductivity of vanadium dioxide, the absorption peak can be finely tuned, spanning from approximately 2.5 %–99 %. In addition, it's angularly symmetrical and exhibits absorption properties for wide-angle incidence. The tunable terahertz absorber designed in this paper simultaneously achieves high absorption over a wide frequency range, is dynamically tunable, and has a simple structure. From the application point of view, it can provide a way to realize detection, and imaging in the terahertz range.

Design and Analysis of Multi-layer Resistive Ink Film Based Metamaterial Ultra-thin Broadband Absorber

Purpose: In order to achieve an excellent electromagnetic absorption response for radar applications, this work proposes a design of an ultra-thin, super broadband, high efficiency meta-material that is insensitive to incidence angle. Methodology: a metamaterial based on multilayer resistive ink unit cell is selected, designed and optimized for minimum electromagnetic absorption and widest bandwidth. The equivalent circuit is derived and analyzed and compered using matlab to results from electromagnetic simulator CST. Findings: Calculating approval requires impedance matching in the structure, which makes it challenging to absorb at high frequencies. In this instance, the proposed structure achieves more than 0.98 absorptivity between 4 and 400 GHz, resulting in a broad absorption bandwidth. When exposed to oblique incidences, the proposed structure behaves in the same way for both transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) modes up to 45°. The total thickness of the planned absorber is 2.105 mm, or 0.028 λ0 at the lowest working frequency. Additionally, find and compare previous radar band reports with the proposed absorber. It is reported to offer more practical feasibility and to be a viable choice for S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka, V, and W bands in addition to millimeter-band radar applications. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: Increasing the band width compared to previous studies while increasing the absorption efficiency and reducing the thickness of the metamaterial.

MOFs-derived 3D flower-like Y2O3/C microspheres with efficient electromagnetic wave absorption properties

Y2O3 has emerged as a promising material for electromagnetic wave (EMW) absorption due to its excellent dielectric properties. However, the inherent insulating nature and single loss mechanism limit its absorption performance. Research on the microstructure modulation and component regulation of Y2O3-based absorbers remains relatively unexplored. In this work, Y2O3/C composites with flower-like architectures were synthesized for the first time via a metal-organic framework (MOFs) templating method. The effects of pyrolysis temperature on the microstructure, phase composition, and EMW absorption performance of the Y2O3/C composites were systematically investigated. At a pyrolysis temperature of 800 °C, the flower-like Y2O3/C microsphere exhibited optimal EMW absorption performance. The minimum reflection loss (RL) of pristine Y2O3 was only −4.75 dB, while the Y2O3/C composite achieved a minimum RL of −51.77 dB and a maximum effective absorption bandwidth of 4.32 GHz. Moreover, by simply adjusting the matching thickness, the optimal sample exhibited strong absorption (RL < −30 dB) over a wide frequency range of 4–18 GHz. The incorporation of carbon effectively neutralized the insulating nature of Y2O3, thereby optimizing the impedance matching. The synergistic effects of multiple loss mechanisms, including polarization loss, resistance loss, and interfacial polarization, facilitated substantial EMW attenuation. This study provides a promising strategy for the design and fabrication of high-performance rare-earth oxide EMW absorbers with tunable morphologies and properties.